_Policy complexity_

Cybersecurity is a complex policy issue due to multidimensional threats spanning legacy systems, skills shortages, human error, supply chain issues, plus environmental disruptions on digital infrastructure ([ENISA, 2024](https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/foresight-cybersecurity-threats-for-2030-update-2024-executive-summary)). Such complexity is heightened across the range of attributes impacting cybersecurity policy development, such as: telecommunication, network, cloud computing, e-commerce, online banking, smart grid, consumer rights, cybercrime, encryption, privacy, identity theft, digital signature, data security, and spam ([Mishra et al., 2022](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167404822002140)). 

_Policy uncertainty_ 

Pressure and uncertainty about governance abounds as the number of [data breaches](https://informationisbeautiful.net/visualizations/worlds-biggest-data-breaches-hacks/) and [cyber attacks](https://www.csis.org/programs/strategic-technologies-program/significant-cyber-incidents) intensify across all sectors and jurisdictions. Cybersecurity policy is therefore never static, but rather a continuous process spanning multiple attributes: governance, identification, protection, detection, response, and recovery efforts ([NIST, 2024](https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/cswp/29/the-nist-cybersecurity-framework-csf-20/final)).

_Policymaking possibilities_

National strategies, such as the Australian Cyber Security Strategy emphasise the need for continual and close consultation with industry and community to achieve national cyber resilience ([Australian Government, 2023](https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/cyber-security-subsite/files/2023-cyber-security-strategy.pdf)). Ultimately there is no one-size-fits all policy approach to cybersecurity - as each organisation (industry, government, academic, or nonprofit) will vary in relation to its risk appetite and tolerance, technologies, mission, and objectives ([NIST, 2024](https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/cswp/29/the-nist-cybersecurity-framework-csf-20/final)).

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